Operation Essay

Southern Fire-fighters, New Zealand Railways, Speights Brewery, Otago Hospital Board, and Cadburys. They limited membership to employees and their families in each case. In 1986, due to growth, the (renamed) Fletcher Challenge Employees (Otago) and the Southern Fire-fighters Credit Unions co-operated in the sharing of office facilities. They purchased a site on a main thoroughfare in Dunedin, just down from the central business district, and erected a modern single story office with street frontage, and provided service to members on a full time basis. Methods for financial transactions varied from manual to different types of computer operated systems. The mid to late 1980s saw great change in the New Zealand economy and society, with the introduction of (new right) `Rogernomics’ policies. The Labour Government deregulated the financial services sector, resulting in the entrance and proliferation of foreign owned banks, and other types of financial service providers, and conversion of building societies to banks, many of them seeking a share of the basic business of credit union, viz personal loans, with a consequential significant increase in competition. However, the banks introduction of sophisticated technological services, in the shape of ATM, and Eftpos, made rural banking relatively expensive, resulting in branch closures. In addition the then Labour Government sold the old Postbank to the ANZ bank. Unemployment increased significantly in the country, and compounded the rural problem, as organisations downsized in a massive way, particularly in the public sector. Questions for Discussion 1. Suggest a possible strategy(s) for the survival of the credit unions in Otago. Phase Two: (1987-95) Otago, in order to take advantage of economies of scale, and thus compete more favourably in the market place. The industrial credit unions had flourished over the period, but the directors realised that their individual sites once saturated, provided little potential for membership growth, particularly in the face of major downsizing. At this point the Railways and Speights credit unions had merged with Fletcher Challenge Employees Each credit union received sufficient support from their respective memberships for amalgamation. The regulator for the credit union industry, the Registrar for Friendly Societies and Credit Unions (Registrar), approved the merger, such that the newly named Credit Union Otago (CUO) opened for business in November 1987 at its Dunedin premises, and functioned with four full time professional staff working a fiveday week. Becoming a community based credit union meant opening up membership to anyone resident in Otago, which has a population of about one hundred and forty thousand. As the first region in New Zealand to undergo this process, Otago provided the model for others to follow.

Can you read my mind Essay

How do you know what you know? Can you figure out how you acquire language when you were still a child? How do you concentrate on reading this paper despite all the stimuli surrounding you? What do you think goes on your mind right now? These are just a few of the questions that cognitive psychology can answer with accuracy. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with how people think, perceive, remember and learn (â€Å"How people learn,† 2007). In the past, behavioral scientists explained certain phenomena by simply observing, then measuring and manipulating variables (â€Å"Albert Bandura,† 2006). Contrary to behaviorism, cognitive psychology explains the mental processes that take place when a person reacts mentally to various stimuli. These mental processes vary from person to person because each has his own schema of events. Schema, which is a term first used by Jean Piaget in 1926, refers to the set of well-defined concepts which a person already has in mind. These concepts may be â€Å"processed† through assimilation (â€Å"John Piaget,† 2006). For instance, a young child who is exposed only to `fork and spoon’ when eating will not recognize chopsticks as tools for eating as well. If you hand that child a pair of chopsticks, he or she won’t use it in picking up food to put on his or her mouth. It’s because that child doesn’t have a concept of chopsticks yet. However, after being exposed to his or her mom using chopsticks, the child will learn that those items can also be used in picking up food to bring to the mouth. That kind of learning is called assimilation which gives way to a new set of schema for the child. Cognitive development among children is just one aspect of cognitive psychology. This branch of learning may also be applied in more recent concerns. For example, teachers and learners are interested in finding out how people process two or more information at the same time. Interestingly, Piolat, Olive, & Kellogg (2005) conducted a study to know how multi-tasked people record notes while they try to comprehend new information from speakers. They found out through their research that â€Å"note taking demands more effort than reading or learning. However, â€Å"it requires less effort than the creative written composition of an original text† (p. 291). A working knowledge on how people think, perceive and learn is important in making predictions, making adjustments, and formulating policies that could aid the people in their day-to-day mental discourses. In one article, Jaroff (1993) told a story of a girl whose life became troubled after meeting with a psychiatrist who made her believe through â€Å"recovery† therapy that she was abused by her own father when she was a young child. Using her knowledge on cognitive psychology, particularly pertaining to how people retrieve memory, she discovered that what she ended up confessing to the psychiatrist was false (â€Å"Lies of the Mind†). This means that an understanding of this branch of knowledge allows people to be more conscious of how they deal with the world. Cognitive psychology is more than just a branch of knowledge. It is a portal leading to your most used but most strange place in this world – that is your mind. You think every day, you learn new things every minute but you forget to understand how all these thoughts are accommodated in your brains, in your minds. In conclusion, cognitive psychology offers explanation to the mental events that take place in a person. These mental activities can explain the past, and the present, to give way to a better future. After all your life depends not exactly on your environment but on how thoughts are processed in your head.

Employee Compensation and Benefits Essay

Black Corporation, an innovative new technology corporation, has just hired John as the director of their Human Resources Department. As HR Director, John has been tasked with hiring an Administrative Assistant/ Secretary for the advertising department and to develop an employee compensation and benefits package that will be used for that position upon hire. He must elaborate on Black Corporation and the type of organization for which he is designing the package and develop an employee compensation and benefits package for this new position. He must be able to support his ideas the compensation/benefits package. This is the first time that John has had the task of hiring for Black Corporation and he will need quality resources to assist him to ensure that he is able to make the process as smooth and effective as possible. What type of Organization is Black Corporation? To begin with, John has recently been hired by Black Corporation as the director of their HR department. John has may years of HR experience and is also a certified Senior Professional in Human resources. BC is a brand new addition to the technology industry, which has just introduced an innovative communications device called the Talk Tablet. This device is a cellular telephone that is also a tablet that can be used for Internet access and app purchases. The head of Advertising, Mary, is in the process of launching a multi million dollar ad campaign and is in need of a Administrative Assistant/Secretary to assist her. Although BC has been open for less than a year they have established their stake in the industry with their ability to enhance current products and out sell many of its competitors. They are also known for employee satisfaction. BC considers its employees their greatest asset and offers excellent benefits and compensation. They are a very competitive employer; therefor e their employees are all experienced professionals in their area of expertise. The Administrative Assistant/Secretary Compensation Package Next, John has to develop the compensation/benefits package for his new hire Elizabeth. According to  BLS.gov the median pay in 2012 (the most updated reporting) for an AA/Secretary is $35,330 or $16.99 per hour. (â€Å"Secretaries and Administrative Assistants,† 2014) BC prides itself in hiring and retaining the cream of the crop in all of the areas they employ. They will pay Elizabeth a base salary of $61,000, due to her experience in this industry and position, and her performance will be evaluated in 90 days for a compensation increase. The base salary for an entry level AA/Secretary will be $51,000. This is $975 more than one of their competitors Apple Inc., according to Glassdoor.com (â€Å"Apple AA hourly pay,† 2014) Additionally John will decide on the benefits package. Susan Hatchfield, management and organization development consultant, who specializes in human resources, explains that â€Å"health insurance is the foundation of a comprehensive employee benefits package. Health insurance is the preferred employee benefit of the majority of people who work. [†¦] No comprehensive employee benefits package would be complete without employer paid time off from work. [†¦] Short-term disability insurance ensures that an employee will still receive a percentage of income if they cannot work due to sickness or a disabling injury. [†¦] Long-term care is an insurance policy that protects an employee from loss of income in the event that he or she is unable to work due to illness, injury, or accident for a long period of time. [†¦] Various dental insurance plans are available for employers to offer as part of a comprehensive employee benefits package. [†¦] Vision insurance is a lower cost addition to a comprehensive employee benefits package that is provided by employers. [†¦] Life insurance is an appreciated component in a comprehensive employee benefits package. [†¦]† (Heathfield, 2014, para. 6) All of these benefits will be the basis for the package for the Administrative Assistant/Secretary. Health, dental and vision insurances will be competitively priced with BC covering the majority of the premiums. The short term and long term insurance and a basic life insurance policy will be provided to the employees at no additional cost. BC will also provide a 401(k) investment option to allow employees to invest in their retirement with a 7% match to all investments. They will also allow an employee stock option with the improved dividends of the corporation. She will be given paid time off on a tiered scale, 4 weeks to begin with as well as a 2 day increase every 3 years with a maximum of 6 weeks. All major holidays will  also be paid with additional days off for some selected holidays. The package will include 12 stress/sick days per year. Elizabeth has been an AA/Secretary for the Advertising director with Google for 10 years and is excited to make the transition to Black Corporation. Google is the dream gig for many young professional according to a survey conducted by CB S News. Amy Levin-Epstein, of CBS News’s Money Watch reports that Google offers â€Å"a standard package of fringe benefits, but on top of that are first-class dining facilities, gyms, laundry rooms, massage rooms, haircuts, carwashes, dry cleaning, commuting buses – just about anything a hardworking employee might want.† (LEVIN-EPSTEIN, 2011, para. 2) They even offer free beer. With this in mind, John needs to develop a package that can offer some of the great fringe benefits that Elizabeth is used to. Although BC is a fairly new company they have invested in a state of the art facility, and they have done their research. They incorporated all of the amenities that Google offers as well as onsite training facilities and the option to go to school on campus to earn certifications and degrees. In conclusion, John has completed his task. He has hired Elizabeth as the Administrative Assistant/Secretary for Mary and he has developed a compensation package for the AA/Secretaries of Black Corporation. Elizabeth will start after she submits her 2 weeks notice. References Apple Administrative Assistant Hourly Pay. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.glassdoor.com/Hourly-Pay/Apple-Administrative-Assistant-Hourly-Pay-E1138_D_KO6,30.htm Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15 Edition, Secretaries and Administrative Assistants, †¨on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/office-and-administrative-support/secretaries-and-administrative-assistants.htm (visited June 16, 2014). Heathfield, S. (2014). What’s In a Comprehensive Employee Benefits Package? Retrieved from http://humanresources.about.com/od/compensation-structure/tp/employee-benefits-package.htm LEVIN-EPSTEIN, A. (2011). Google Job Perks: Top 10 Reasons We Want to Work There. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/google-job-perks-top-10-reasons-we-want-to-work-there/

Discussion feedback(Project Management Assignment) Assignment

Discussion feedback(Project Management ) - Assignment Example You have also noted that you need to work on your self-assurance. It is very important that you work on this skill because in a project, all members draw their strength and inspiration from the team leader. You seem to have a lot of good characteristics but there is a need to work on them such that you become a great leader. Being decisive is very important because leadership has more to do with making decisions than anything else. If you are not decisive, it might be hard to lead a team through a crisis moment. Therefore, you need to work on this characteristic. A good analysis on why leadership and communication are very important for success of a project. Unfortunately, you seem to consider turnover of team members as not a very important setback. This might not be always the case. Consider a turnover of members in a highly technical project, any replacement of the old members may require substantial time for training and bringing them up to speed. Kindly note that having technical skills may not necessarily mean you can join any technical project in your field at any point and continue working without causing disruptions. Communication to you comes out as a very significant factor in ensuring that projects succeed. If there is good communication, everything is likely to roll out as planned. I like the manner in which you relate the housing bubble with learning lessons from the past. That is definitely one way in which business leaders can learn from the past. You are right that cost estimation is necessary in order to determine the viability of a project and thus decide whether to go on with it or not. You also correctly note that work breakdown structure is required to determine what it will take to complete the project and identify any challenges which may be encountered. That is a good analysis there. A good attempt at relating cost estimation with work breakdown structure and project planning schedule. You

Advantages and disadvantages of E-commerce to consumers (B2C) Essay

Advantages and disadvantages of E-commerce to consumers (B2C) - Essay Example However, reputable websites have installed the safeguards to protect their consumers from all concerns Encryption and decryption system for authentication of users, and close working with cybercrime handling companies. They have installed premium antivirus and firewalls (Parsons and Oja, 2011). Consumer can access the online system and gets a complete information about products, saves time and cost. Consumers can compare the prices of different products and select the best company offering quality products at a low cost (Joseph, 2012). Consumers feel difficulty in inspecting the some of items like food items, jewellery and antique etc. from remote locations. Most disadvantage of E-Commerce is the rapid expansion of the underlying technologies (Parsons and Oja, 2011). Cultural environment of consumers has been changed through the use of E-Commerce. Consumers have overcome their cultural and native-environment. Because consumers’ trust has been explored through the online system. Advanced system have reduced the mistrust of consumers regardless of their cultures, such as Amazon.com, Ebay etc. (Ong, 2013). Many E-Commerce websites have legal and cultural issues for conducting their business. Most of the consumers fear about using their credit cards and sending the numbers over the internet. Other consumers show their resistance in changes and feel uncomfortable when they look merchandise on the computers’ screens (Joseph, 2012). Consumers can expand their choice of products in order to buy products at any time from anyplace. Consumers can customize products to meet their personal benefits. transparency in the E-Commerce has resulted in to an intensive competition that has lowered the products’ prices for consumers (Azadi, 2011). Unlike physical shopping from mortar and brick store where customers can talk to service providers, E-Commerce does not provide such as platform to customers. Much of services provided by e-commerce involve the

Africa Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Africa - Article Example Because of this attacks and wars on the three states, thousands of people evacuated and left their home for their safety. It is very sad to know that million miles away from us, there have been a lot of killings happening and a lot people here didn’t even knew it happened. The attack in Teludi caused hundreds of lives killed. I feel the fear of the people who left their homes to survive. The children left school, and the parents left their work. It is very depressing to know that these families can no longer enjoy the peaceful lives they’ve lived before because of the attacks. They have left their homes and everything they invested unwillingly to make sure that they will be safe. They have been affected by the political clashes of their state. They had no choice but to leave everything behind to be able to ensure that they will not be affected by the attacks anymore. I cannot stop but hope that the war will soon be over for these families to be able to go back to their normal

Training and Development Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 22

Training and Development Assessment - Essay Example In this process, both public and private, training and development practices differ to provide the company or organization a more competitive work staff. The training and development practices at the University of Worcester and Tesco are compared to highlight the similarities and differences in the public sector and private sector training principles. The University of Worcester must consider issues of revenue growth and strategy to remain competitive against other universities both local and international. With the growth in e-learning available to citizens across the globe, it becomes more and more difficult to become recognized as an educational leader with students of all lifestyles, income brackets, and values as learning become more convenient without necessarily having to leave home. Therefore, the university must ensure that its staff is well-trained and knowledgeable with new concepts and theories so that students choose the University of Worcester over other educational options. Part of training and development at the university involve establishing a set of criteria by which teachers are judged for performance. The University of Worcester has developed an annual development appraisal in order to ensure top performance that includes staff timetable tools for meeting individual teacher obligations (Wright & Evans 2009). Part of this appraisal includes what is referred to as the Resource Model that identifies key strengths and weaknesses of teachers in order to assess their current skills capabilities. Teachers are given timetables of milestones for learning and meeting new curriculum goals and then they are appraised to determine whether their knowledge is currently able to reach expectations. What makes the performance appraisal process so significant at the university is that staff is able to offer suggestions and amendments to these timetables (Wright & Evans).This indicates an empowerment model that includes teacher feedback in their training module to facilitate better ways to maximize the student’s satisfaction regarding the quality of their education.

Annotated Bibliography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Annotated Bibliography - Research Paper Example For prehending, students learn through a concrete experience. In transforming, students are geared more towards active experimentation. These two processes can be placed onto a quadrant in which each quarter contains a certain learning style. The learning styles used by Kolb are â€Å"Assimilators,† â€Å"Divergers,† Convergers,† and â€Å"Accommodators.† For this study, participants were chosen from the Taxes and Personal Finance course at the Lubar School of Business at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. A total of 159 participants were given two versions of WBI that had the same content and were only different with the accessibility on the platform. The results found that for each WBI module, each learning style was balanced. For student reaction, the participants were given an eight question Likert-type scale ranging from Did Not Like (1) to Liked Very Much (4). The results of this survey found that there was little difference between participants o f both WBI modules. Overall, the study found that with WBI, there is not any difference between the learning styles of students and type of online instruction. When it comes to construction projects in Hong Kong, there are certain criteria that are used to determine the success of the project. However, the definition of the success of a project depends on the view of a number of stakeholders, such as clients, consultants or designers, and contractors. This study aims to compare the responses of all of these stakeholders based on a set of criteria used to measure a project’s success. After reviewing literature, nine specific performance criteria were chosen for this study: profit, time, no claims or contractual disputes, job satisfaction, quality, safety, environment, generation of innovative ideas, and effectiveness. The definition of performance criteria is given as a benchmark to evaluate

How does physical movement benefit brain development in elementary Research Paper

How does physical movement benefit brain development in elementary students - Research Paper Example In the past, such a debate has been concentric upon an understanding of whether childhood play is beneficial or not with regards to overall development of mental capacity and understanding. However, within the scope of this particular analysis, play in and of itself will not be discussed. Rather, due to the fact that the focus of this analysis is concentric upon the means by which activity can impact positively upon the learning process, play is an insufficient definition of such an activity. Within such a manner, the handle of physical activity will be utilized as a means of discussing and analyzing what prior research has documented concerning any and all languages that might exist with regards to development of mental capacity and ability to engage in further educational endeavors. Linking directly back into an understanding of the way in which sociology and psychology have traditionally understood development in terms of heredity, up until almost 15 years ago, sociologists and ps ychologists believed that early childhood development was almost invariably tied to heredity (Leppert et al, 2009). In such a way, scientists believed that the parents of the individual child created something of a genetic blueprint by which further development and mental capacity were constrained. However, if not surprisingly, further research into the subject matter, and a vastly increased level of knowledge with regards to the way in which early development takes place, has denoted that heredity plays only a minimal role with regards to the â€Å"wiring† that the brain engages in (Lum, 2013). Such an understanding has of course been made easier due to the fact that increases in technology have provided scientists and researchers with specialized scans and mapping applications by which key test subjects were analyzed from week to week, month to month, and year to year as a means of providing a roadmap for the way in which brain development was actually affected within diffe rent key groups. As a result of this level of research that has been ongoing for the past few decades, scientists have definitively determined that the patterns and strengthening of bonding synapses is primarily influenced and aided by the existence of physical activity within the regime of the child. This should not be understood to mean that a level of sports or competitive games must be engaged in order for this physicality aspect to be positively correlated to brain activity (Hotz et al, 2009). Rather, almost all of the accident research which is been conducted on this topic has determined that physical activity in the form of play, kinetic learning, and many other forms are equally as beneficial; perhaps more due to the fact that they do not oftentimes behave within rigid norms or regulations. In effect, the inclusion of creativity alongside physical activity seems to be as something of a magic formula with regards to stimulating brain development and maximizing the overall lev els of connections that can be made within the adolescent mind. Perhaps most importantly of all, scientists have determined that there is a â€Å"sweet spot† with regards the timeframe in which this can be affected. As sociologists and

Building the Boeing 787 Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Building the Boeing 787 Case Study - Essay Example The initial developmental time for launch of Boeing was six years and overall development cost was estimated to be 10 billion dollars. With the introduction of the unconventional supply chain, the estimated development time reduced to 6 years and cost went down to 6 billion dollars. The manufacturing and supply cost was reduced and financial risk was spread among suppliers. The major advantage of outsourcing was gained in terms of expertise in areas of operations. Different parts of the aircraft were outsourced to those businesses which were expert in that area. This ensured production of best quality parts and maintenance of world standards. For example, most of the engines manufacturing were outsourced to General Electric and Rolls Royce, who have mastered the art of advanced engineering in the present competitive world. For Boeing 787, the company outsourced around 70 percent of its business which ensured a lot of cost savings. This cost was put into other areas such as marketing, brand building and launch campaigns for the aircraft. Most of the supplier’s relationship was based on contacts and Boeing had special contracts with tier-1 suppliers. A strict supplier relationship helped in maintaining the time frame for production and shipping of the parts, which helped in timely installation and development. Thus by outsourcing more, Boeing was able to reduce the development cost to a significant level (Wanke, 2004). This was done by leveraging the capabilities of the suppliers. In order to maintain coordination and collaboration between its suppliers, Boeing also established a web-based technology which helped in increasing supply chain visibility and improving overall integration and control of the supply chain business. Reduction in financial risks Most of the outsourced suppliers were in contracts with the company. The company also established risk sharing contracts with each of its suppliers. Under this contact, the final payment will be given only after the successful launch of

NAFEMS UK conference 2014 that was hold in Oxford, UK 10-11 June 2014 Term Paper

NAFEMS UK conference 2014 that was hold in Oxford, UK 10-11 June 2014 - Term Paper Example Computer-aided engineering is the use of software and tools to enhance the user’s productivity. Computer-aided engineering tools such as the MuSES IR Signature Prediction by ThermoAnalytics and the Solidworks tools by Bassauult Systems as illustrated on the UK conference. The future of computer-aided engineering aims at developing programs that can share data with each other and eradicating manual involvements, cross-checking, and the checking of errors. Manual attributes are regarded as a low-value utilization of an engineer’s time where organizations cannot maximize their resources using the manual approach. The future of computer-aided engineering seeks to automate most non-value tasks to enable engineers complete challenging tasks in the least time possible (Hsieh & Tsai, n.d). According to the presentations by Altair, TranscenData, and Enginesoft among others, the new development of the computer-aided programming seeks to converge most approaches as the computer-aided design by adding a central database to increase automation levels. The presented software and tools such as the ESTECO Enterprise Suite indicate that engineers will be able to load numerous data entries into the database that can hold all recurrent data and insert it where necessary in a keystroke. Engineers are choosing the use of the computer-aided engineering will convert project documentation into various regional standards and languages to facilitate cross-border collaborations. The computer-aided engineering initially included simulation and optimization and was once regarded as a specialty task that required advanced development and research. Today simulation through the finite element analysis has drastically evolved into a relevant part of an engineer’s design. The impact of simulation can be observed in everything from packaging of

President Theodore Roosevelt Essay Example for Free

President Theodore Roosevelt Essay Theodore Roosevelt was an asthmatic, nearsighted, shy and physically weak child who later on became one of the most powerful Presidents of the United States. His leadership style was tough, yet his charisma kept him in the circles of smart people. His communication skills were popular among the masses but his tough leadership style was disliked by his fellow republicans. His leadership was considered too domineering by them. Although, much before succeeding as the President, he was the president of the board of New York Police commissioners. During his two years as its presidents, he radically transformed the organization. With his iron-will and honesty, he brought major reforms to the organization and saved its tainted image. His style of working with others was tough and usually liked to take unilateral decisions, yet his major decisions proved correct Theodore Roosevelt had a very ambitious personality.   He took up sports as diverse as boxing, hiking, horseback riding, and tennis. In his childhood, he was hyperactive and rather mischievous and was an excellent conversationalist (Thayer, 1919). He was an avid reader. He chose to lead a strenuous life despite the fact that his doctors advised him to find a desk job.   All these aspects of his personality later reflected in his life as a leader. His ambitious personality helped him overcome his physical abilities to become a powerful masculine figure and later became one of the most robust and ambitious U.S presidents. His hyperactive personality was later instrumental in his success as he became an activist and a reformer. His excellent communication skills helped him in his election campaign as it captivated the masses.   Above all, his personality aspect of being tough and leading a strenuous life was one of the prime reasons that he rose from being a timid boy to becoming among the most powerful U.S presidents (Morris, 2001). Issues that engaged my emotions Theodore Roosevelt had a poor state of health. From his physical condition, one could only infer that he would later end up finding a desk job and leading a normal life. But since his childhood, he had great ambitions. He worked out in gymnasium to improve his physical health and took up boxing to deal with bullies (Thayer, 1919). His memorable fight at Harvard is a testament of how hard work helped him achieve something others won’t expect of him (Thayer, 1919). I feel emotionally engaged with these issues because it would have taken him great pains to overcome his physical state, which was probably the reason for him being shy in childhood, to become a great man in history. The death of his mother and wife on the same day, both very dear to him, was also one of the issues I felt emotionally engaged with. His recovery from this great loss was an evidence of the strength of his personality and his emotional stability. Though, Theodore Roosevelt was awarded a Noble Peace prize for his efforts to end Russo-Japanese wars, he was equally eager to wage war with any country to test the naval supremacy of the U.S. I disagree with his hawkish stance when he disclosed his desire to fight war with any country. I also disagree with his position on racism. He was also a racist and seriously doubted the loyalties of Irish-American and German-American and termed them unpatriotic. No doubt, Theodore Roosevelt was an important historical figure. But there have been instances when his motives seemed to me more inclined towards personal gains rather than being towards national interest. He sought to give the President wide ranging authority and thus extended the president’s powers. He considered the president the sole authority to make decisions and in the process undermined the judiciary to some extent. He split his party and even split with his friend William Howard Taft, who was Roosevelt’s candidate for presidency (Morris, 2001). I am also critical of some of his actions. He was responsible for splitting his party and did not succeed in getting the loyalties of his fellow republicans, which was mainly due to their reservations about his domination of the party politics.   He was also responsible for establishing a temporary colonial rule over the Dominican Republic in 1905 and Cuba in 1906 (Morris, 2001). Instead of supporting President Wilson’s pledge of neutrality during World War 1, he became one of its biggest critics. If I were in place of President Theodore Roosevelt, I would have adopted a dovish approach to the problems of that time. I would have tried to ensure that fellow republicans have been taken into confidence on all major decisions, a step that could have proved useful for the President in his future campaigns. Instead of a hawkish approach towards enemies in World War 1 after the presidency, I would have supported the strategy of President Wilson. References Morris, Edmund (2001). The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt. Modern Library. Roosevelt, Theodore (1913). An Autobiography. Thayer, Charles Roscoe (1919). Theodore Roosevelt.

Gender Differences in the Workforce

Gender Differences in the Workforce The contention that women’s roles in having a career results in the creation of a problem with regard to them achieving a balance between their work and lives finds its roots in the rights and equality issues women have faced throughout the ages. The subject is not a contemporary one, although this tends to be the common perception due to scant references to resources dating back centuries as a result of either suppression or the lack of relevant data in books. In fact, such information is available via research in many journals and letters. The sources of the conception that a woman’s career somehow takes second precedence to being a wife, mother or homemaker are founded in a number of myths, prejudicial thinking, misguided notions and historical contexts that have fostered them as second class citizens. A large percentage of feminists believe that the status of women being regarded as second-class citizens is a result of patriarchy being the foundation that modern society was built upon and that this fostered thinking, attitudes and conceptions that relegated them to secondary roles instead of being regarded as equals. The foregoing notion(s) shall be examined from a number of standpoints to clarify the unenlightened views held by some in this regard. The examination will not be conducted from a feminist point of view, nor shall it seek to explain prevailing views, it shall instead present the relevant facts which the conclusions shall be drawn from. The simple truth is that women have been balancing multiple roles through history and the insertion of the role of career can be equated to any number of functions that they have performed and accomplished. Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.1 Background In order to set the context for the discussion regarding the contention that women’s roles in having careers poses a problem in their achieving balance between work and life, the first salient fact that needs tube established is that women constitute 3,209,000,000 of the world’s total population estimate of 6,477,450,857 (Population Reference Bureau, 2006). This means that the under utilization of women represents a 50% reduction in the number of available individuals that can make a contribution in professional terms. Chart 1 – Education Variables – Women (Population Reference Bureau, 2006) Demographic Variable Country Data Women All Ages, 2005 World 3,209,000,000 All Educational Variables Literacy Women as % of Literate Men, Ages 15-24, 2000-04 World 92 Secondary School Enrolment, Female, 2000-03 (as % of school-age enrolment) World 93 As the preceding chart indicates, the slight difference in overall literacy rates does not put women at a disadvantage in terms of educational qualifications, yet their unemployment rate remains considerably higher proportionally. As shown from the following chart, women comprise approximately 40% of today’s work force yet their participation rates indicate bias (see Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003): Chart 2 – Global Labour Market Indicators / 1993 and 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Female Male Total 1993 2003 1993 2003 1993 2003 Labour force (millions) 1,006 1,208 1,507 1,769 2,513 2,978 Employment (millions) 948 1,130 1,425 1,661 2,373 2,792 Unemployment (millions) 58.2 77.8 82.3 108.1 140.5 185.9 Labour force participation rate (%) 53.5 53.9 80.5 79.4 67.0 66.6 Employment-to-population ratio (%) 50.4 50.5 76.1 74.5 63.3 62.5 Unemployment rate (%) 5.8 6.4 5.5 6.1 5.6 6.2 Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Male LFPR Female LFPR Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males World 79.4 53.9 68 Middle East and North Africa 76.8 28.2 36 South Asia 81.1 37.4 44 Latin America and the Caribbean 80.5 49.2 64 Industrialized Economies 70.3 50.5 76 Transition Economies 65.7 53.1 91 South-East Asia 82.9 60.5 75 Sub-Saharan Africa 85.3 63.2 77 East Asia 85.1 73.1 83 When wages are factored into the preceding figures, the picture of bias with respect to employed women takes on additional meaning. Chart 4 – Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations. (International Labour Organization, 2004) Accountant Computer First- Labourer Professional Welder (in banking) programmer Level in nurse in metal in education construction Manu- insurance teacher factoring F M F M F M F M F M F M Bahrain (1993-98) 16 1161 near near -7 131 36 24 1n.a.1 1n.a1 1n.a.1 1n.a1 Belarus (1996-2000) near near near near 100 35 307 323 near near near near Cyprus (1990-2001) near near 44 60 23 12 49 37 26 9 near near Finland (1990-1999) 67 96 44 66 -7 -4 1 8 -7 -6 -10 -1 Jordan (1988-1997) 29 20 -63 -51 25 13 near near -21 -17 near near Korea, Republic of (1990-2001) 91 46 94 73 29 60 115 37 71 229 46 49 Kyrgyzstan (1998-2001) 4 -26 near near -14 -39 4 20 -19 -32 near near Latvia (1997-2001) 39 31 561 142 82 45 36 18 60 33 1 26 Peru (1997-2001) 15 35 -13 -20 34 37 near near near near near near Poland (1998-2001) 28 31 103 70 53 53 13 20 26 29 45 25 Romania (1995-2001) 126 73 1 38 -7 -6 -19 -24 27 17 -22 -20 Singapore (1995-2000) -3 -24 24 43 near near 26 16 9 24 24 19 United Kingdom (1996-2001) 16 1 9 near near near near near near 10 12 near near United States (1990-2000) 9 12 15 6 4 14 near near -2 10 near near From the foregoing it appears that the problem with women’s roles in having a career is the problem that is perceived by others rather than women themselves. The preceding statement is made as a result of the purely statistical information which clearly shows that women want to work and have the basic educational background(s), however wages are a reflection of a perceived difference even when gauged against the same profession. Therefore, there must be other forces, explanations, perceptions and aspects at work. In order to understand the environments outlined by the preceding, it will be necessary to delve into social, gender, historical, economic and other areas in order to develop an understanding of what is at work in even asking the question, as well as answering it. For if the preceding did not consist of underlying causes, then the need to examine the phenomenon would not exist. The foregoing brings us to areas of examination that at first glance might seem disconnected from the context, but in reality are revealing looks into legislative, sociological, cultural, historical and aspects that aid in providing not just facts, but insight as a result of reviewing them in combination as statistical data and appropriate legislation are a result of changing societal views. But legislation alone cannot cause individuals to evolve their views, and herein lies the problem as there are countless examples where the spirit of the law has been subjugated and artificial barriers created or utilized. The preceding are events, circumstances and outgrowths that are not the product of women’s careers being the problem, these are other forces at work making it a problem. 1.2 Historical Perspectives Historically women have managed, just as males have, to multi task. The example of the working male who engages in sports, hunting, boating, wood working, and running multiple businesses does not raise the question as to whether they are neglecting or failing to provide their families with enough fathering time. This is a result of patriarchy which means in literal terms that males make the decisions as a result of them being the dominant aspect in political as well asocial affairs. But, more importantly males own and run the corporations by and large, as well as are dominant in political, military and other manifestations of power. Therefore, whether one elects to think of society at large being patriarchal, it in fact is. Hence, the preceding fosters underlying, hidden and historical perceptions regarding the roles of men and women as established centuries ago. Support for the preceding view can be traced back to Roman law during the period defined as Augustus to Justinian, as represented by27 B.C. to 527 A.D. A Roman woman was regarded as legally capable at the age of thirteen whereby she was permitted to draw up a will(Hacker, 2004). The foregoing however was bound by the condition that she could do so under supervision. Supervision was deemed to either bathe female’s father, male guardian of husband and their consent was essential in order for the will to be executed. The preceding stipulation of male consent remained as a condition over a Roman woman’s life regardless of her age. This condition was explained as being a result of their â€Å"†¦ unsteadiness of character†, â€Å" â€Å"the weakness of the sex†, and â€Å"ignorance of legal matters† (Hacker, 2004, p-3). Evidence of subjugation can also be found in Church history. Canon law states that a wife must be submissive to her husband and that she could not cut off her hair under penalty of excommunication (Hecker,2004, p-9). And in the case of Joan of Arc, it was her breaking of the law stating that a woman who wore men’s garments was accursed, that was one of the charges that resulted in her being burned at the stake(Hacker, 2004, p-9). Similar examples can also be found in British law where under older common law a husband had the authority to â€Å"†¦ correct and chastise his wife† (Hacker, 2004, p-11). The preceding examples are a few of the historical foundations that patriarchy has been built upon and hence the underlying foundation from which the subject of woman’s career roles emanates. Chapter 2 –Segregation in the Workplace 2.1 Segregation Segregation in the workplace constitutes a phenomenon that is linked to sex discrimination, the glass ceiling, patriarchy and unequal wages in that it reinforces stereotyped views, attitudes and traditions. Resin (1984) states that work related sex segregation can be characterized in the following manner, the first is through norms that separate sexes into separate spheres, such as the predominance of females in domestic work and males in construction, and via functional separation whereby males and females do different work in the same work setting. Segregation in the workplace is a further subtle reinforcement of inequality that slowly permeates the conscientiousness of both males and females into accepting this abnormality as being normal. A review of segregation in the workplace in terms of its manifestations shall be examined from a neutral stance in order to gauge perspectives from both sides of the equation. Such will be done from a factual information based perspective. The subject of segregation in the workplace with regard to women is also termed as the ‘Glass Ceiling’. This phrase was developed in the United States during the 1970’s to describe artificial and invisible barriers that were and are created as a result of organizational and attitudinal prejudices that serve to prevent women from assuming top positions in the workplace (Wirth, 2001). As the most visible and publicized example of discrimination and the segregation of women in the work place, the exclusion of females from top positions within corporations is clearly evident by the fact that they hold just 2 to 3 percent of the top positions. Linda Wirth (2001) has stated that women have not reached top positions in major companies and that the foregoing has nothing to do with their lack of abilities. The International Labour Organization (Chart 5) indicates that around fifty percent (59%) of all women are positioned in occupations that cane be termed sex stereotyped. The preceding term is defined as meaning that approximately eighty present (89%) of the workers within these occupations are either males or females whereas management is primarily male dominated position. Chart 5 – Women’s Share of Administrative – Managerial Positions and Their Share of Total Employment, 1994-1995 (Wirth, 2001, p 193) Country Administrative and Managerial Jobs (%) Total Employment (%) Australia 43 42 Austria 22 43 Chile 20 32 Costa Rica 23 30 Ecuador 28 38 Egypt 12 20 Finland 25 47 Israel 19 42 Japan 9 41 Malaysia 19 34 Mexico 20 32 Norway 32 46 Paraguay 23 41 Philippines 33 37 Sri Lanka 17 48 Switzerland 28 40 Turkey 10 30 United Kingdom 33 45 United States 43 46 Uruguay 28 41 Venezuela 23 33 The preceding is an example of how segregation in the workplace extends into wage inequality as well as job satisfaction in that there is a cap on the level of advancement which women can generally aspire to thus slowly dampening their drive and determination in the face of subtle hurdles. Given the predominance of male positioned managers, executives and directors only the most dedicated and brightest of females manage to reach top positions where they still remain underpaid and suffer forms of discrimination in a male dominated environment. The definitive example of work segregation is found in the manner in which men and women are paid for the same work. Chart 4, Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations, revealed that the fact there has been and is a percentage change in real wage earnings for men and women in selected occupations, means that there was wage disparity in the first place (International Labour Organization, 2004). The idea of traditional occupations represents one of the most pervasive forms of segregation in work whereby males are thought to be either innately qualified or predisposed to work in certain industries. An example of the preceding is demonstrated by the findings of the Equal Opportunities Commission in Scotland based upon research conducted by Caledonian University in Glasgow. Said study found that there are barriers to younger adults pursuing certain career choices and that these include the negative feedback and or attitudes of family, friends and more particularly employers (BBC News, 2005). Said study pointed to the fact that there were just forty-one female apprentices in the entire country that were actively engaged in pursuing a construction career., and only fifty in engineering (BBCNews, 2005). On the opposite side of the coin the same study revealed that just 15 males were pursuing careers as apprentices in childcare. The report concluded that the barriers concerning the recruitment of males for that occupation were the low pay and attitudes of end users regarding the suitability of males in such roles (BBC News, 2005). 2.2 Gender Segregation Gender segregation represents a real issue that is neither subtle nor hidden, yet defies the concept of discrimination in that it prevents females from assuming careers that tend to fall outside of what is either considered feminine or represent male dominated areas whereby their attempt at entry will be greeted with barriers. The conception that there are traditional roles for men and women is countermanded byte fact that fully one-third of Finnish and American entrepreneurs are women, as just one singular example (International Labour Office,2004). The concept of segregation in the workplace has many differing forms and varieties, but it is what it is, segregation. And that fosters the climate that continues the attitudinal as well as prejudicial underpinnings that contribute to the view of woman’s careers as being predisposed to a certain limited sphere as well as inequality. Pascale differences, the conception that certain careers are better suited to women, the disproportionate skew of males in managerial positions as well as the predominate concentrations of females in certain professions and industries reinforce this environment to the detriment of all. Chapter 3 Attitudes Toward Women at Work As pointed out in Chapter 3 – Segregation in the Workplace, certain predefined ideas and conceptions provide the basis that fosters and continues the notion that varied occupations are better suited to women or men. This thinking helps to create an attitudinal atmosphere that reinforces itself in spite of there being proof to the contrary. Evening what we like to think of as our modern and progressive societies of the new millennium, much of the same limited and outdated thinking that existed prior to the 1940’s is still with us, and in spite of all of the legislation, feminist movements and understanding of equal rights, progress in terms of changing or evolving people’s minds has been slowing coming. The aforementioned ‘glass ceiling’ atmosphere is a pervasive climate that permeates throughout the work environment. Its visual manifestations in terms of the male dominated professions and management positions are consistent reminders of the way things are, as well as the way things were. Thus, an examination of attitudes concerning women at work is linked to segregation in the workplace as well as other concepts as they are inexorably tied to one another. The most disturbing examples of attitudes with regard to women at work arise discrimination and sexual harassment, both outgrowths of segregation in the workplace. 3.1 Looking Under the Surface Oddly, the Allies would most likely not have won World War I without women. Not because they were nurses, functioned as telephone operators or were basically secretaries to generals and prime ministers, but because they welded tanks, made munitions, drove tractor-trailers, operated heavy machinery and performed all manner of traditionally male jobs (Wikipedia, 2005). With such a breakthrough in thinking as well as demonstration of female aptitude one would wonders to why the questions of discrimination, work place segregation and unequal pay scales are still with us, yet they are. Once again, the roots of such odd thinking can be traced back to patriarchy, which comes from ancient Greece whereby patria Thus the ramifications of continued second class citizenship with regard to participation in the work force must be explained by ingrained societal foundations, and this is the rationale for the examination of the word patriarchy. Given its foundation of ruler, archer, the platform for at least a partial explanation of the struggle women still face in the workplace seems to have a basis. The foregoing when combined with the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and unequal wage scales brings forth the fact that there is de facto sex discrimination, and these practices create the view that sees women as secondary, or less important workers and individuals. Article 20 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, which was enacted in 2000, states that everyone is equal in terms of the law and Article 21 of that legislation states(Silver, 2003): â€Å"Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation shall be prohibited† The European Charter of Fundamental Rights goes on to add in Article23 that it is understood that it recognizes equality between men and women as being (Silver, 2003): â€Å"†¦ in all areas, including employment, work and pay, without preventing measures providing for specific advantages in favour of thunder-represented sex† The language as well as intent leaves no room for misinterpretation with regard to the stance of the European Union and thus the obligations of all member nations. The problem with the foregoing is that it had to be legislated rather than being a part of the social fabric. And, as it is with all regulations, laws and legislation, penalties form the basis for compliance where common sense and morality do not prevail. Once again, the ingrained thinking of centuries of cultural and traditional foundations of patriarchal societies is at work slowing the process. And while there has been and is progress in terms of the opportunities open to women, these areas pale in comparison to the overall number taken as a whole. The International Labour Organization (2003) found that while women represent forty present (40%) of the labour force, their proportion of managerial positions is fewer than twenty present (20%). Its studies also uncovered that the higher the management position, the less women are represented. The latest figures on top corporate positions found that women constituted just a 2 to 3 present representation (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-5). The preceding, while limited to managerial considerations, is clear indication of the prevailing attitude in the workplace regarding careers involving women. It points to the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and the fact that within the structures as well as processes of society and organizations that there is inherent discrimination that transcends legislation through the application of slow and frustrating practices. The correlation of attitudes in the workplace is best exemplified through what is and has transpired as a result of historical employment patterns. Developed economies such as the United Kingdom and Switzerland report that slightly over ten present (10%) and twelve present (12%), respectively, of executives in these countries were women as of 1999 (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-6). And while there have been increases in the level of managerial positions held by women, the overall percentage increase has been in the range of1 through 3 present. 3.2 Statistical Evidence Statistical evidence has been utilized to illustrate that the workplace attitudes concerning women has been and is slow to change. In the United Kingdom a survey conducted by the Equal Opportunities Commission(2006) indicated that while females have been outperforming males in education and that they statistically outnumber males in institutions of higher learning, they represent just: nine present (9%) of the senior judiciary, ten present (10%) of senior police officers, and thirteen present (13%) of national newspaper editors The overall consensus reached by the survey is that there has been little progress or change since the Equal Opportunity Commission first published its findings in 2004. The lack of any meaningful progress in women achieving managerial positions has been utilized as a bell weather to gauge attitudes and indicates that social, cultural and economic variables, as well as wage scales, that are clear indicators with respect to the fact that the workplace attitudes concerning women still sees them in secondary rather than equal roles. Chapter 4 Legislation Concerning Gender and Employment The European Union passed the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which marked its first legislation on discrimination. Society was different in that period than it is now and in some ways it remains the same. The gender divide is still present and research has shown that there is little difference in a reduction of the wage gap. The fact that the European Union has been diligent in its understanding and approach to the facets of inequality, discrimination in all forms, equal pay, employment equality, sexual harassment, and sex discrimination means that there are other factors inhibiting the objective of attaining improvements in these areas. In order to understand what has transpired in terms of society and legislation, a comparative examination of the 30 year period that represents the enactment of the Equal Pay Act of 1970 and today shall attempt to identify the factors inhibiting progress in the achievement of the aims of legislation designed to eliminate the aforementioned inequities. 4.1 Equal Pay Act of 1970 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005) The Act makes it unlawful for employers to discriminate in the workplace between males and females with regard to their rate of payment when they are engaged in the same as well as similar work, work that is rated as being equivalent and or work that is of equal value. The key provision is that the Act refers to comparisons for the preceding between individuals of the opposite sex. When the Act was passed in 1970 the wage gap between males and females stood as thirty-seven present (37%) (Woman and Equality, 2006). By the time the Act became law in 1975 the wage gap had reduced to thirty present(30%), and presently it stands at seventeen present (17%) (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005). The Act provides both men as well as women to equal payment in terms of the contract for employment and provides for coverage for piecework, quotas, bonuses, sick leave and holidays. Enhancements to the Act under European Law have extended the range of coverage to redundancy payments, concessions for travel, pensions handled by employers and to occupational benefits under pension plans administered by employers. The Equal Pay Act was the first as well as most important piece of legislation in that it immediately addressed the issue of compensation that covered every male and female within the jurisdiction of the European Union. And while being a landmark piece of legislation in terms of seeking to level the playing field for women, the Act also contains provisions that provide employers with a defence concerning pay differences. It states that employers do not have to pay the same wages as well as benefits for equal work if they can effectively prove that the difference on wages is a factor unrelated toe difference in sex. It also provides for the fact that differing geographic locations might serve as grounds, as well as specialized recruitment for particular positions and the requirement or need to retain workers that perform or occupy particular positions. 4.2 Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation (International Labour Organization, 2006) As referred to as ‘gender equality’ Directive 76/207, which was amended by Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 of the European Commission Treaty, it sets forth the foundations and regulations concerning equal treatment in terms of: 1. access to employment 2. self-employment and occupation, 3. working conditions, and 4. vocational training The framework that the Directive set down terms and conditions that identified discrimination on the basis of: religion or belief, and age or sexual orientation, with regard to employment as well as occupation, thus putting into effect in the European Union states principles of equal treatment as long as the preceding does is not as a result of discrimination based upon sex, which is legislated under the Sex Discrimination Act. And while this piece of legislation is not directly linked to considerations based upon sexual orientation, it does represent a broad context that broadens the scope of the European Union’s legislative powers in these areas and as such constitutes a supporting role in the specific mandates that affect women. As covered under Chapter 3 -Attitudes Toward Women at Work, societal, traditions and cultural foundations help to shape individual as well as corporate thinking. As such the attack on prejudice needs to take a direct frontal approach as well as from angles to centralize and focus in on the problem or unequal treatment as a concept, condition and principle. Sex Discrimination Act, as amended, of 1976 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The Act provides for the fact that individuals must have legal protection with regard to harassment and sexual harassment in employment as well as vocational training. The Act defines harassments: â€Å"†¦ where unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the purpose of violating the dignity of a person and of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment†. (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) And in terms of the Act, sexual harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature occurs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The preceding refers to when the foregoing violates the dignity of an individual when in particular such creates a hostile, degrading, offensive and or humiliating environment. In the United Kingdom the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is the singular statute dealing specifically with this subject. It makes it a criminal offence for someone to engage in or pursue a course of conduct, this includes speech, which amounts to the harassment of another individual. Under the UK Harassment Act, harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ a course of conduct which amounts to harassment of another, and which he knows or ought to have known amounts to the harassment of another† (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The laws of the European Union clearly set forth the conditions, circumstances and legal ramifications of equal pay, sex discrimination, harassment and gender equality in its position to create compliance with modern societal thinking and correctness. The heart of the principle is that a law is: 1. A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement or authority. 2. a. The body of rules and principles governing affairs†¦ b. The condition of social order and justice created by adherence to such a system †¦ 4. A piece of enacted legislation † (Houghton Mifflin, 2006) The preceding provides the explanation as to why such legislation is needed. And while there is great debate on the subject, the purpose of government is to protect individual rights and to preserve justice(Wikipedia, 2006). And as it is with any societal system, the prevailing view as well as wisdom changes as thinking evolves. The underlying foundations upon which western societies are primarily built upon are patriarchal and religious precepts. As discussed in Chapter 1– Introduction, the rights of women were scant and subject to the subjugation of males under Roman law, the church and ancient as well as medieval laws. Since legislation for Equal Pay was only enacted in 1970in the European Union it seems to indicate that medieval principles were still at work in our modern age and apparently still at work in that equal pay, attitudes toward women at work and enacted legislation has made progress, but still represents a prime topic of discussion thirty years later. Chapter 5 The Differences Between Men and Women The biological and social constructions of men and women are known to have scientific basis with respect to differences. The notion that we are all created equal is a truth of the human experience, but within that equality, men and women differ in many aspects. The question in the context of women and their career roles with respect to a work and life balance is, does that difference equate some type of advantage, disadvantage or no applicable correlation with regard to that context? 5.1 The Perception of Differences A recent scientific discovery indicated that there are 789 different genes that separate men from women (BBC News, 2003), but the study could not detail what they do or the reasons as to what the differences that these genes might hold. And the foregoing represents the point. There are both differences as well as similarities between the sexes that are identified as a result of psychological differen Gender Differences in the Workforce Gender Differences in the Workforce The contention that women’s roles in having a career results in the creation of a problem with regard to them achieving a balance between their work and lives finds its roots in the rights and equality issues women have faced throughout the ages. The subject is not a contemporary one, although this tends to be the common perception due to scant references to resources dating back centuries as a result of either suppression or the lack of relevant data in books. In fact, such information is available via research in many journals and letters. The sources of the conception that a woman’s career somehow takes second precedence to being a wife, mother or homemaker are founded in a number of myths, prejudicial thinking, misguided notions and historical contexts that have fostered them as second class citizens. A large percentage of feminists believe that the status of women being regarded as second-class citizens is a result of patriarchy being the foundation that modern society was built upon and that this fostered thinking, attitudes and conceptions that relegated them to secondary roles instead of being regarded as equals. The foregoing notion(s) shall be examined from a number of standpoints to clarify the unenlightened views held by some in this regard. The examination will not be conducted from a feminist point of view, nor shall it seek to explain prevailing views, it shall instead present the relevant facts which the conclusions shall be drawn from. The simple truth is that women have been balancing multiple roles through history and the insertion of the role of career can be equated to any number of functions that they have performed and accomplished. Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.1 Background In order to set the context for the discussion regarding the contention that women’s roles in having careers poses a problem in their achieving balance between work and life, the first salient fact that needs tube established is that women constitute 3,209,000,000 of the world’s total population estimate of 6,477,450,857 (Population Reference Bureau, 2006). This means that the under utilization of women represents a 50% reduction in the number of available individuals that can make a contribution in professional terms. Chart 1 – Education Variables – Women (Population Reference Bureau, 2006) Demographic Variable Country Data Women All Ages, 2005 World 3,209,000,000 All Educational Variables Literacy Women as % of Literate Men, Ages 15-24, 2000-04 World 92 Secondary School Enrolment, Female, 2000-03 (as % of school-age enrolment) World 93 As the preceding chart indicates, the slight difference in overall literacy rates does not put women at a disadvantage in terms of educational qualifications, yet their unemployment rate remains considerably higher proportionally. As shown from the following chart, women comprise approximately 40% of today’s work force yet their participation rates indicate bias (see Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003): Chart 2 – Global Labour Market Indicators / 1993 and 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Female Male Total 1993 2003 1993 2003 1993 2003 Labour force (millions) 1,006 1,208 1,507 1,769 2,513 2,978 Employment (millions) 948 1,130 1,425 1,661 2,373 2,792 Unemployment (millions) 58.2 77.8 82.3 108.1 140.5 185.9 Labour force participation rate (%) 53.5 53.9 80.5 79.4 67.0 66.6 Employment-to-population ratio (%) 50.4 50.5 76.1 74.5 63.3 62.5 Unemployment rate (%) 5.8 6.4 5.5 6.1 5.6 6.2 Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Male LFPR Female LFPR Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males World 79.4 53.9 68 Middle East and North Africa 76.8 28.2 36 South Asia 81.1 37.4 44 Latin America and the Caribbean 80.5 49.2 64 Industrialized Economies 70.3 50.5 76 Transition Economies 65.7 53.1 91 South-East Asia 82.9 60.5 75 Sub-Saharan Africa 85.3 63.2 77 East Asia 85.1 73.1 83 When wages are factored into the preceding figures, the picture of bias with respect to employed women takes on additional meaning. Chart 4 – Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations. (International Labour Organization, 2004) Accountant Computer First- Labourer Professional Welder (in banking) programmer Level in nurse in metal in education construction Manu- insurance teacher factoring F M F M F M F M F M F M Bahrain (1993-98) 16 1161 near near -7 131 36 24 1n.a.1 1n.a1 1n.a.1 1n.a1 Belarus (1996-2000) near near near near 100 35 307 323 near near near near Cyprus (1990-2001) near near 44 60 23 12 49 37 26 9 near near Finland (1990-1999) 67 96 44 66 -7 -4 1 8 -7 -6 -10 -1 Jordan (1988-1997) 29 20 -63 -51 25 13 near near -21 -17 near near Korea, Republic of (1990-2001) 91 46 94 73 29 60 115 37 71 229 46 49 Kyrgyzstan (1998-2001) 4 -26 near near -14 -39 4 20 -19 -32 near near Latvia (1997-2001) 39 31 561 142 82 45 36 18 60 33 1 26 Peru (1997-2001) 15 35 -13 -20 34 37 near near near near near near Poland (1998-2001) 28 31 103 70 53 53 13 20 26 29 45 25 Romania (1995-2001) 126 73 1 38 -7 -6 -19 -24 27 17 -22 -20 Singapore (1995-2000) -3 -24 24 43 near near 26 16 9 24 24 19 United Kingdom (1996-2001) 16 1 9 near near near near near near 10 12 near near United States (1990-2000) 9 12 15 6 4 14 near near -2 10 near near From the foregoing it appears that the problem with women’s roles in having a career is the problem that is perceived by others rather than women themselves. The preceding statement is made as a result of the purely statistical information which clearly shows that women want to work and have the basic educational background(s), however wages are a reflection of a perceived difference even when gauged against the same profession. Therefore, there must be other forces, explanations, perceptions and aspects at work. In order to understand the environments outlined by the preceding, it will be necessary to delve into social, gender, historical, economic and other areas in order to develop an understanding of what is at work in even asking the question, as well as answering it. For if the preceding did not consist of underlying causes, then the need to examine the phenomenon would not exist. The foregoing brings us to areas of examination that at first glance might seem disconnected from the context, but in reality are revealing looks into legislative, sociological, cultural, historical and aspects that aid in providing not just facts, but insight as a result of reviewing them in combination as statistical data and appropriate legislation are a result of changing societal views. But legislation alone cannot cause individuals to evolve their views, and herein lies the problem as there are countless examples where the spirit of the law has been subjugated and artificial barriers created or utilized. The preceding are events, circumstances and outgrowths that are not the product of women’s careers being the problem, these are other forces at work making it a problem. 1.2 Historical Perspectives Historically women have managed, just as males have, to multi task. The example of the working male who engages in sports, hunting, boating, wood working, and running multiple businesses does not raise the question as to whether they are neglecting or failing to provide their families with enough fathering time. This is a result of patriarchy which means in literal terms that males make the decisions as a result of them being the dominant aspect in political as well asocial affairs. But, more importantly males own and run the corporations by and large, as well as are dominant in political, military and other manifestations of power. Therefore, whether one elects to think of society at large being patriarchal, it in fact is. Hence, the preceding fosters underlying, hidden and historical perceptions regarding the roles of men and women as established centuries ago. Support for the preceding view can be traced back to Roman law during the period defined as Augustus to Justinian, as represented by27 B.C. to 527 A.D. A Roman woman was regarded as legally capable at the age of thirteen whereby she was permitted to draw up a will(Hacker, 2004). The foregoing however was bound by the condition that she could do so under supervision. Supervision was deemed to either bathe female’s father, male guardian of husband and their consent was essential in order for the will to be executed. The preceding stipulation of male consent remained as a condition over a Roman woman’s life regardless of her age. This condition was explained as being a result of their â€Å"†¦ unsteadiness of character†, â€Å" â€Å"the weakness of the sex†, and â€Å"ignorance of legal matters† (Hacker, 2004, p-3). Evidence of subjugation can also be found in Church history. Canon law states that a wife must be submissive to her husband and that she could not cut off her hair under penalty of excommunication (Hecker,2004, p-9). And in the case of Joan of Arc, it was her breaking of the law stating that a woman who wore men’s garments was accursed, that was one of the charges that resulted in her being burned at the stake(Hacker, 2004, p-9). Similar examples can also be found in British law where under older common law a husband had the authority to â€Å"†¦ correct and chastise his wife† (Hacker, 2004, p-11). The preceding examples are a few of the historical foundations that patriarchy has been built upon and hence the underlying foundation from which the subject of woman’s career roles emanates. Chapter 2 –Segregation in the Workplace 2.1 Segregation Segregation in the workplace constitutes a phenomenon that is linked to sex discrimination, the glass ceiling, patriarchy and unequal wages in that it reinforces stereotyped views, attitudes and traditions. Resin (1984) states that work related sex segregation can be characterized in the following manner, the first is through norms that separate sexes into separate spheres, such as the predominance of females in domestic work and males in construction, and via functional separation whereby males and females do different work in the same work setting. Segregation in the workplace is a further subtle reinforcement of inequality that slowly permeates the conscientiousness of both males and females into accepting this abnormality as being normal. A review of segregation in the workplace in terms of its manifestations shall be examined from a neutral stance in order to gauge perspectives from both sides of the equation. Such will be done from a factual information based perspective. The subject of segregation in the workplace with regard to women is also termed as the ‘Glass Ceiling’. This phrase was developed in the United States during the 1970’s to describe artificial and invisible barriers that were and are created as a result of organizational and attitudinal prejudices that serve to prevent women from assuming top positions in the workplace (Wirth, 2001). As the most visible and publicized example of discrimination and the segregation of women in the work place, the exclusion of females from top positions within corporations is clearly evident by the fact that they hold just 2 to 3 percent of the top positions. Linda Wirth (2001) has stated that women have not reached top positions in major companies and that the foregoing has nothing to do with their lack of abilities. The International Labour Organization (Chart 5) indicates that around fifty percent (59%) of all women are positioned in occupations that cane be termed sex stereotyped. The preceding term is defined as meaning that approximately eighty present (89%) of the workers within these occupations are either males or females whereas management is primarily male dominated position. Chart 5 – Women’s Share of Administrative – Managerial Positions and Their Share of Total Employment, 1994-1995 (Wirth, 2001, p 193) Country Administrative and Managerial Jobs (%) Total Employment (%) Australia 43 42 Austria 22 43 Chile 20 32 Costa Rica 23 30 Ecuador 28 38 Egypt 12 20 Finland 25 47 Israel 19 42 Japan 9 41 Malaysia 19 34 Mexico 20 32 Norway 32 46 Paraguay 23 41 Philippines 33 37 Sri Lanka 17 48 Switzerland 28 40 Turkey 10 30 United Kingdom 33 45 United States 43 46 Uruguay 28 41 Venezuela 23 33 The preceding is an example of how segregation in the workplace extends into wage inequality as well as job satisfaction in that there is a cap on the level of advancement which women can generally aspire to thus slowly dampening their drive and determination in the face of subtle hurdles. Given the predominance of male positioned managers, executives and directors only the most dedicated and brightest of females manage to reach top positions where they still remain underpaid and suffer forms of discrimination in a male dominated environment. The definitive example of work segregation is found in the manner in which men and women are paid for the same work. Chart 4, Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations, revealed that the fact there has been and is a percentage change in real wage earnings for men and women in selected occupations, means that there was wage disparity in the first place (International Labour Organization, 2004). The idea of traditional occupations represents one of the most pervasive forms of segregation in work whereby males are thought to be either innately qualified or predisposed to work in certain industries. An example of the preceding is demonstrated by the findings of the Equal Opportunities Commission in Scotland based upon research conducted by Caledonian University in Glasgow. Said study found that there are barriers to younger adults pursuing certain career choices and that these include the negative feedback and or attitudes of family, friends and more particularly employers (BBC News, 2005). Said study pointed to the fact that there were just forty-one female apprentices in the entire country that were actively engaged in pursuing a construction career., and only fifty in engineering (BBCNews, 2005). On the opposite side of the coin the same study revealed that just 15 males were pursuing careers as apprentices in childcare. The report concluded that the barriers concerning the recruitment of males for that occupation were the low pay and attitudes of end users regarding the suitability of males in such roles (BBC News, 2005). 2.2 Gender Segregation Gender segregation represents a real issue that is neither subtle nor hidden, yet defies the concept of discrimination in that it prevents females from assuming careers that tend to fall outside of what is either considered feminine or represent male dominated areas whereby their attempt at entry will be greeted with barriers. The conception that there are traditional roles for men and women is countermanded byte fact that fully one-third of Finnish and American entrepreneurs are women, as just one singular example (International Labour Office,2004). The concept of segregation in the workplace has many differing forms and varieties, but it is what it is, segregation. And that fosters the climate that continues the attitudinal as well as prejudicial underpinnings that contribute to the view of woman’s careers as being predisposed to a certain limited sphere as well as inequality. Pascale differences, the conception that certain careers are better suited to women, the disproportionate skew of males in managerial positions as well as the predominate concentrations of females in certain professions and industries reinforce this environment to the detriment of all. Chapter 3 Attitudes Toward Women at Work As pointed out in Chapter 3 – Segregation in the Workplace, certain predefined ideas and conceptions provide the basis that fosters and continues the notion that varied occupations are better suited to women or men. This thinking helps to create an attitudinal atmosphere that reinforces itself in spite of there being proof to the contrary. Evening what we like to think of as our modern and progressive societies of the new millennium, much of the same limited and outdated thinking that existed prior to the 1940’s is still with us, and in spite of all of the legislation, feminist movements and understanding of equal rights, progress in terms of changing or evolving people’s minds has been slowing coming. The aforementioned ‘glass ceiling’ atmosphere is a pervasive climate that permeates throughout the work environment. Its visual manifestations in terms of the male dominated professions and management positions are consistent reminders of the way things are, as well as the way things were. Thus, an examination of attitudes concerning women at work is linked to segregation in the workplace as well as other concepts as they are inexorably tied to one another. The most disturbing examples of attitudes with regard to women at work arise discrimination and sexual harassment, both outgrowths of segregation in the workplace. 3.1 Looking Under the Surface Oddly, the Allies would most likely not have won World War I without women. Not because they were nurses, functioned as telephone operators or were basically secretaries to generals and prime ministers, but because they welded tanks, made munitions, drove tractor-trailers, operated heavy machinery and performed all manner of traditionally male jobs (Wikipedia, 2005). With such a breakthrough in thinking as well as demonstration of female aptitude one would wonders to why the questions of discrimination, work place segregation and unequal pay scales are still with us, yet they are. Once again, the roots of such odd thinking can be traced back to patriarchy, which comes from ancient Greece whereby patria Thus the ramifications of continued second class citizenship with regard to participation in the work force must be explained by ingrained societal foundations, and this is the rationale for the examination of the word patriarchy. Given its foundation of ruler, archer, the platform for at least a partial explanation of the struggle women still face in the workplace seems to have a basis. The foregoing when combined with the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and unequal wage scales brings forth the fact that there is de facto sex discrimination, and these practices create the view that sees women as secondary, or less important workers and individuals. Article 20 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, which was enacted in 2000, states that everyone is equal in terms of the law and Article 21 of that legislation states(Silver, 2003): â€Å"Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation shall be prohibited† The European Charter of Fundamental Rights goes on to add in Article23 that it is understood that it recognizes equality between men and women as being (Silver, 2003): â€Å"†¦ in all areas, including employment, work and pay, without preventing measures providing for specific advantages in favour of thunder-represented sex† The language as well as intent leaves no room for misinterpretation with regard to the stance of the European Union and thus the obligations of all member nations. The problem with the foregoing is that it had to be legislated rather than being a part of the social fabric. And, as it is with all regulations, laws and legislation, penalties form the basis for compliance where common sense and morality do not prevail. Once again, the ingrained thinking of centuries of cultural and traditional foundations of patriarchal societies is at work slowing the process. And while there has been and is progress in terms of the opportunities open to women, these areas pale in comparison to the overall number taken as a whole. The International Labour Organization (2003) found that while women represent forty present (40%) of the labour force, their proportion of managerial positions is fewer than twenty present (20%). Its studies also uncovered that the higher the management position, the less women are represented. The latest figures on top corporate positions found that women constituted just a 2 to 3 present representation (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-5). The preceding, while limited to managerial considerations, is clear indication of the prevailing attitude in the workplace regarding careers involving women. It points to the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and the fact that within the structures as well as processes of society and organizations that there is inherent discrimination that transcends legislation through the application of slow and frustrating practices. The correlation of attitudes in the workplace is best exemplified through what is and has transpired as a result of historical employment patterns. Developed economies such as the United Kingdom and Switzerland report that slightly over ten present (10%) and twelve present (12%), respectively, of executives in these countries were women as of 1999 (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-6). And while there have been increases in the level of managerial positions held by women, the overall percentage increase has been in the range of1 through 3 present. 3.2 Statistical Evidence Statistical evidence has been utilized to illustrate that the workplace attitudes concerning women has been and is slow to change. In the United Kingdom a survey conducted by the Equal Opportunities Commission(2006) indicated that while females have been outperforming males in education and that they statistically outnumber males in institutions of higher learning, they represent just: nine present (9%) of the senior judiciary, ten present (10%) of senior police officers, and thirteen present (13%) of national newspaper editors The overall consensus reached by the survey is that there has been little progress or change since the Equal Opportunity Commission first published its findings in 2004. The lack of any meaningful progress in women achieving managerial positions has been utilized as a bell weather to gauge attitudes and indicates that social, cultural and economic variables, as well as wage scales, that are clear indicators with respect to the fact that the workplace attitudes concerning women still sees them in secondary rather than equal roles. Chapter 4 Legislation Concerning Gender and Employment The European Union passed the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which marked its first legislation on discrimination. Society was different in that period than it is now and in some ways it remains the same. The gender divide is still present and research has shown that there is little difference in a reduction of the wage gap. The fact that the European Union has been diligent in its understanding and approach to the facets of inequality, discrimination in all forms, equal pay, employment equality, sexual harassment, and sex discrimination means that there are other factors inhibiting the objective of attaining improvements in these areas. In order to understand what has transpired in terms of society and legislation, a comparative examination of the 30 year period that represents the enactment of the Equal Pay Act of 1970 and today shall attempt to identify the factors inhibiting progress in the achievement of the aims of legislation designed to eliminate the aforementioned inequities. 4.1 Equal Pay Act of 1970 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005) The Act makes it unlawful for employers to discriminate in the workplace between males and females with regard to their rate of payment when they are engaged in the same as well as similar work, work that is rated as being equivalent and or work that is of equal value. The key provision is that the Act refers to comparisons for the preceding between individuals of the opposite sex. When the Act was passed in 1970 the wage gap between males and females stood as thirty-seven present (37%) (Woman and Equality, 2006). By the time the Act became law in 1975 the wage gap had reduced to thirty present(30%), and presently it stands at seventeen present (17%) (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005). The Act provides both men as well as women to equal payment in terms of the contract for employment and provides for coverage for piecework, quotas, bonuses, sick leave and holidays. Enhancements to the Act under European Law have extended the range of coverage to redundancy payments, concessions for travel, pensions handled by employers and to occupational benefits under pension plans administered by employers. The Equal Pay Act was the first as well as most important piece of legislation in that it immediately addressed the issue of compensation that covered every male and female within the jurisdiction of the European Union. And while being a landmark piece of legislation in terms of seeking to level the playing field for women, the Act also contains provisions that provide employers with a defence concerning pay differences. It states that employers do not have to pay the same wages as well as benefits for equal work if they can effectively prove that the difference on wages is a factor unrelated toe difference in sex. It also provides for the fact that differing geographic locations might serve as grounds, as well as specialized recruitment for particular positions and the requirement or need to retain workers that perform or occupy particular positions. 4.2 Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation (International Labour Organization, 2006) As referred to as ‘gender equality’ Directive 76/207, which was amended by Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 of the European Commission Treaty, it sets forth the foundations and regulations concerning equal treatment in terms of: 1. access to employment 2. self-employment and occupation, 3. working conditions, and 4. vocational training The framework that the Directive set down terms and conditions that identified discrimination on the basis of: religion or belief, and age or sexual orientation, with regard to employment as well as occupation, thus putting into effect in the European Union states principles of equal treatment as long as the preceding does is not as a result of discrimination based upon sex, which is legislated under the Sex Discrimination Act. And while this piece of legislation is not directly linked to considerations based upon sexual orientation, it does represent a broad context that broadens the scope of the European Union’s legislative powers in these areas and as such constitutes a supporting role in the specific mandates that affect women. As covered under Chapter 3 -Attitudes Toward Women at Work, societal, traditions and cultural foundations help to shape individual as well as corporate thinking. As such the attack on prejudice needs to take a direct frontal approach as well as from angles to centralize and focus in on the problem or unequal treatment as a concept, condition and principle. Sex Discrimination Act, as amended, of 1976 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The Act provides for the fact that individuals must have legal protection with regard to harassment and sexual harassment in employment as well as vocational training. The Act defines harassments: â€Å"†¦ where unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the purpose of violating the dignity of a person and of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment†. (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) And in terms of the Act, sexual harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature occurs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The preceding refers to when the foregoing violates the dignity of an individual when in particular such creates a hostile, degrading, offensive and or humiliating environment. In the United Kingdom the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is the singular statute dealing specifically with this subject. It makes it a criminal offence for someone to engage in or pursue a course of conduct, this includes speech, which amounts to the harassment of another individual. Under the UK Harassment Act, harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ a course of conduct which amounts to harassment of another, and which he knows or ought to have known amounts to the harassment of another† (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The laws of the European Union clearly set forth the conditions, circumstances and legal ramifications of equal pay, sex discrimination, harassment and gender equality in its position to create compliance with modern societal thinking and correctness. The heart of the principle is that a law is: 1. A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement or authority. 2. a. The body of rules and principles governing affairs†¦ b. The condition of social order and justice created by adherence to such a system †¦ 4. A piece of enacted legislation † (Houghton Mifflin, 2006) The preceding provides the explanation as to why such legislation is needed. And while there is great debate on the subject, the purpose of government is to protect individual rights and to preserve justice(Wikipedia, 2006). And as it is with any societal system, the prevailing view as well as wisdom changes as thinking evolves. The underlying foundations upon which western societies are primarily built upon are patriarchal and religious precepts. As discussed in Chapter 1– Introduction, the rights of women were scant and subject to the subjugation of males under Roman law, the church and ancient as well as medieval laws. Since legislation for Equal Pay was only enacted in 1970in the European Union it seems to indicate that medieval principles were still at work in our modern age and apparently still at work in that equal pay, attitudes toward women at work and enacted legislation has made progress, but still represents a prime topic of discussion thirty years later. Chapter 5 The Differences Between Men and Women The biological and social constructions of men and women are known to have scientific basis with respect to differences. The notion that we are all created equal is a truth of the human experience, but within that equality, men and women differ in many aspects. The question in the context of women and their career roles with respect to a work and life balance is, does that difference equate some type of advantage, disadvantage or no applicable correlation with regard to that context? 5.1 The Perception of Differences A recent scientific discovery indicated that there are 789 different genes that separate men from women (BBC News, 2003), but the study could not detail what they do or the reasons as to what the differences that these genes might hold. And the foregoing represents the point. There are both differences as well as similarities between the sexes that are identified as a result of psychological differen

Coaching And Mentoring Has Been In Society Management Essay

Coaching And Mentoring Has Been In Society Management Essay Coaching and mentoring has been in society for thousands of years in some form or another. Coaching has been likened with counselling and therapy as a large number of therapists have retrained to become coaches. In the last century it became ever more popular with an emphasis on life coaching, academic coaching, managerial coaching and sports coaching. Anybody can call themselves a coach or mentor and because there is a lack of regulation and accreditation the consequence is problems with adherence and accountability and no way of actually measuring its effectiveness. In the last 20 years industry and business have bought into the coaching and mentoring framework. A survey by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2011) shows coaching and mentoring to be an increasing activity to improving performance and employee engagement. Because of this the coach has a responsibility for imparting knowledge, through technical ability and skill altogether ensuring the protà ©gà ©s personal and professional development. There are subtle differences between coaching and mentoring, but academics would argue coaching is an element of mentoring (Clutterbuck and Lane 2004). However there is still much confusion and Ives (2010) argued that the reason for confusion is the lack of formal definition. Another way of viewing this is with Hawkins and Smith (2007, p39) who in comparison argue that multiple definitions can delineate the territory mentoring might cover. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development survey goes on to state that it is also confusing because of reluctance by industry to conduct formal evaluation on their programmes and what will its value be within businesses. There are numerous definitions for coaching and mentoring. Bax, Negrutiu, and Calota (2011 p323) stipulates the role of a coach as helping, showing, giving feedback, explaining and encouraging. Along with Linder-Pelz and Hall (2008, p43) who state coaching is about, facilitating a clients performance, experience, learning and growth. The International Coaching Federation (2011, p1) describes a coach as, providing objective assessment and observations that foster the individuals enhanced self-awareness. Mentoring has been defined as a relationship between two people with learning and development as its purpose, (Megginson and Garvey 2004, p2) (cited in Brockbank and McGill 2006). The most striking correlation between the definitions is the phrase learning, which best describes an essential part to the relationship that makes coaching and mentoring distinctive. As opposed to Wallace and Gravells (2009 p10) who offer another alternative for mentoring as a long term commitment and a more gradual process than coaching. It is therefore acknowledged that during coaching or mentoring some form of learning will occur. Hence this would indicate the coach or mentor need to have a level of competence, experience and training technique. The European Mentoring and Coaching Council have identified their core competences within their code of ethics and Clutterbuck and Lane (2004) attempted to identify common attributes. Subsequently other governing bodies such as the association of coaching, the association of professional executive coaching the international coach federation have defined their own versions further adding to the confusion. At the same time the research conducted by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development survey (2011), and The Institute of Leadership and Management Creating a coaching culture Report. (2011) emphasise coaching enablers within business need to be mindful of all the schemes and styles in order to finding the best strategic model. For this reason as with most interventions there needs to be a guide to aiding behavioural modification, these are the building blocks of the various concepts and models. The GROW Model (Goal, Reality, Options, Will) is the best known model for coaching. This model is a goal orientated model which is simplistic, easy to understand and use. It has been extensively described by many authors including Whitmore (1992, 2003, 2009), Downey (2003), Clutterbuck, and Megginson (2005). They imply the model can be utilised by anyone without specialist training, but is lacking a self-reflection process. The Chiumento research report: Coaching Counts (2007) highlights the trend of organisations using coaching models. The GROW model being the preferred choice. According to the literature the model allows for the coach and coachee relationship to be developed and the individual to develop and manage their goals. However it is used predominantly for a short term and to correct a business issue, improve individual performance, facilitate the learning of new skills, to prepare an individual for promotion or change. Mostly case studies give examples of how the model is applied. Therefore analysis is difficult. Further coaching models are the framework to facilitate this change within an individual. The coach by definition is the architect of the process and not just an instructor. Coaching models are the tool kit for a coach to develop the coaching relationship with a coachee. However, as with all tool kits a coach can collect a vast array of tools, but never develop the competence to use them. Connor, M. Pokora, J. (2007 p12) states when a model is used it, provides a map for the journey, for both client and coach. That journey is never linear and it is easy to get lost along the way so there must be a process to change direction. To better define best practice the European Mentoring and Coaching Council produced a code of ethics (2008). This was an attempt to standardise the terminology, competence, integrity, professionalism and structure. Unfortunately this is only one governing bodys package. Hawkins and Smith (2007) first presented their model of coaching in the early 80s. They later developed the model which focused on the coach and coachee relationship from the outset. In particular, enabling the setting of clear ground rules when negotiating the contract. The CLEAR Model (Contracting, Listening, Exploring, Action, Review) was very similar to the GROW model although not as restricted and does allow a level of flexibility. There is greater emphasis on the feedback loop for the coach and coachee. Because of the exclusiveness of literature, only slight reference is made to similar areas of study. It is evident that this model has had an influence on further coaching models. Spece and Oades (2011 p38) note that many of the coaching surveys and reviews, impacts an array of psychological characteristics and processes. They also observe that much of the literature, when speaking of coaching, raise the concern to using cognitive behavioural coaching, motivational interviewing and emotional intelligence. McMahon (2007) was a co-founder of the cognitive behavioural coaching model. Her model focussed on a non-directive form of questioning which enabled an individual to become self-aware of their emotions. This model has been extensively theorised and researched with the vast majority being empirical. Unfortunately, it is only designed to be used over a short period of time, but enabled only a competent practitioner to develop an individual into identifying problem solving goals. Nonetheless this did address personal issues but it did not take into account the requirements of the establishments objectives. There is additionally widespread consensus of opinion and ideas as to what coaching and mentoring is or what makes a good coach. The Institute of Leadership and Management Creating a coaching culture Report (2011) examined the link between who conducts the coaching and what is coaching best practice. See figure 1 below. They found that although line managers are the preferred choice, they do not necessarily make the best coaches as this will prevent the success of the intervention provided. Unfortunately the majority of their research to date uses only a small numbers of participants and makes analysis challenging. Figure 1 Who undertakes coaching? Figure taken from the Institute of Leadership Management Creating a coaching culture Report May 2011 The average manager/coach, in order to be successful, requires some form of intelligence, knowledge that they must communicate well, understand their subordinates or peers and conduct themselves appropriately. These skills are not just inherited but must be nurtured over time. Emotional intelligence, as it is referred to, requires the manager to have empathy, commitment, initiative and self-awareness. To know yourself emotionally enables an individual to adjust their behaviour towards others. Sterrett (2006) attempts to introduce this concept to those who are engaged in coaching and mentoring. Wall (2006, p68) refers to a key aspects of a coach or mentor as being emotional Intelligent which, refers to a variety of personal and interpersonal competencies that have huge impact on a persons success. Indeed coaching must now include this element as it can allow the coach to engage at a personal level and guide the coachee to set their goals linked to their own personal values. As a resul t the coachee is more likely to buy in and pursue this relationship if the change matters to them. With all positives there can be a negative as Alexander (2011) alternatively offers another aspect to the use of emotional intelligence. She argues when emotional intelligence is used it can also give an individual the intellectual advantage and can be used to control, manipulate and intimidate. However the article uses emotive language. It is lacking in impartiality and does not produce any credible evidence. The consequence is she has a tendency to over emphasise the negative part. The McLeod and Thomas (2010) model of coaching, the STEPPA Model (Subject, Target objective, Emotion, Perception, Plan, Pace, Act/Amend), is relatively new and offers a more finite element than other models. The basis of the model is to concentrate on the individuals emotions and actions are elicited through them. These are more elaborate in details and interpretation. However it is lacking the flexibility a novice coach needs. The literature leans towards the opinions and assumptions of the creators and is not based on any data taken from independent research. There is also a lack of empirical evidence to indicate the value of its use. In fact the literature showed there was a variation of important aspects to coaching and mentoring. First, the type of coaching conversation, which begins with establishing the relationship between coach and coachee. This was fabricated using the code of ethics. Secondly setting the contract which must contain all the agreed parameters. Thirdly the formulation and setting of goals and obtaining a by in from the coachee and lastly using feedback to make adjustments. Unfortunately the models are limited by their creators and because of this a level of flexibility is removed. It is impossible to suggest that there is a perfect model to use as it would be easier to fit a model in a specific circumstance. All models emphasised the fact that individuals must recognise their own potential, take ownership of their individual goals and aims and review them periodically. The importance of questioning and self-reflection is paramount. The models do however, provide a basic structure for the coach to work with. All have a level of simplicity and some allow a level of flexibility and are all intended to make the coachee take action. There are limitations, and if the coach does not take care, can overlook the basic principles required in coaching interventions. Egan 2002 (cited in Connor and Pakora 2007) states, the model is for the client, in short the coach should not get hooked into constantly checking where they are in the process rather than moving in the direction the coachee wants. Coaching is rapidly expanding into multiple disciplines and applications but despite abundant rigid literature, research into coaching and mentoring is still very limited. If coaching can be claimed as an asset within industry and business alike, studies should contain a varied population with an interchangeable set of objectives. It has been shown that coaching may not have the desired effect for certain environments and that an alternate option would be a more suitable choice.